Lead, cadmium, and arsenic in Mexico: a narrative review of biomarkers of effect and organ injury

Gustavo R. Govea-Torres, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Medicine, Autonomous University of Nuevo León, Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
Lourdes Garza-Ocañas, Departamento de Farmacología y Toxicología, Facultad de Medicina, UANL, Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
Christian T. Badillo-Castañeda, Departamento de Farmacología y Toxicología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico

Lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and arsenic (As) are persistent environmental pollutants that significantly threaten public health in Mexico. This review summarizes the last decade’s scientific literature on biomarkers of effect in the Mexican population exposed to these metals. A comprehensive search was conducted in PubMed and Google Scholar, revealing consistent associations between exposure to these metals and various biomarkers indicative of renal, neurological, cardiovascular, endocrine, and pulmonary damage, in addition to oxidative stress and genotoxicity. The findings suggest multi-organ effects may occur even at low concentrations. However, methodological heterogeneity and the limited assessment of combined exposures underscore the necessity for standardized and integrative research approaches. Future studies should address co-exposure scenarios and regional variability to enhance epidemiological surveillance and guide preventive actions. Biomarkers of effect represent essential tools for the early detection of toxicity and the development of public health interventions to reduce the impact of heavy metal exposure in Mexico.

Keywords: Lead. Cadmium. Arsenic. Biomarkers of effect. Mexican population.